. REQUIRE "ipub" SOURCE_FILE;
. EVERY HEADING({SECNAME},DRAFT-{DATE},{PAGE!});
.S|The Construction and Acoustical Properties of the Violin|

.SS|Introduction|
In dealing with the music of the eighteenth century, it is essential to
realize that the instruments used then differed greatly from those of today
in construction, and therefore, in sound.  To a large extent, the violin was still
in its developmental stages, being constantly altered to fit the demands
of an evolving soloistic style of music.  With the rise in popularity of the 
virtuoso performer, music spread from the intimacy of the chamber into the:
concert
hall necessitating an instrument with a larger sound.  This need increased with the
prevalence of the solo concerto style where the soloist was expected to be heard 
above
an accompanying group. The instrument that emerged from these influences led to the 
violin as we know it today.

.SS|The Construction and Acoustical Properties of the Violin|
Reduced to a most simplistic definition, the violin is but a machine which
amplifies the sound of a vibrating string.  The means by which this is accomplished,
however, is extremely complicated, requiring a delicate balance between the various
components of the instrument (fig.1).∪∪Paolo Peterlongo, //The Violin: its Physical 
and Acoustic Properties/ (New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1979), p.24.∪

The string is set into motion through the friction caused by the rosined hairs of the 
bow. This lateral oscillation is then translated by the bridge into a vertical force
which is exerted on the belly of the instrument, causing it to vibrate.
The vibration compresses and expands the air in the body, forcing it in and
out through the sound holes.  The construction of the body is such that it forms an
extremely efficient resonating chamber.  The bridge is situated so that its right 
foot is just slightly in front of the sound post, and its left foot is directly 
over the bass bar.  This arrangement causes the instrument to vibrate asymmetrically
in a manner carefully calculated to achieve the greatest enhancement of resonance
for the strings (fig.2).∪∪Peterlongo, //The Violin/, p.70.∪

The types of wood used in the violin are very important, they must
be chosen carefully, matching their physical properties to their function.  The wood
most prized for use in the belly is white pine, noted for its elasticity and 
flexibility.  These qualities are especially important in the belly which functions
as a vibrating membrane, distorting according to the force exerted on it by the
bridge.  The function of the back of the violin is to reflect the air set in
motion by the vibrating belly, and to send it back through the sound holes.  For this
reason, a harder wood, less prone to distortion is needed.  The most popular wood
(because of its beauty) is maple, although pear, sycamore, ash, poplar, and willow 
have also been used for the back. The acoustical properties of the woods vary according to the 
thickness, and tailoring the belly and the back to respond to each other in the
most effective way is an exacting art.

The physical construction of the belly greatly affects the quality of the sound
produced. According to Peterlongo, "Bellies that are thin and flat possess greater
elasticity and consequently produce a better tone on notes in the middle and lower
registers.  In more steeply arched bellies it is generally speaking the higher tones
that sound better." ∪∪Peterlongo, //The Violin/, pp.47-48.∪
Obviously, the ideal is a happy medium which would result in a consistent quality
of sound produced by all the strings.  The instruments we have today are the
result of much experimentation in seeking to achieve this ideal.

A confusing aspect of the history of
the violin family is the rise and fall in popularity of the instruments of 
different makers.  Most early critics preferred the violins of the Austrian Jacob 
Stainer and the Cremonese Amati family, both of whose instruments are characterized by a 
highly arched belly.  In fact, Stainer violins are so arched, it is often possible to
look in one sound hole and be able to see out the other.  The flatter-bellied
models of Stradivarius and Guarnerius (both of Cremona), although popular in the 
18th century, were not considered superior until the 19th century. 
George L:ohlein, in 1774, rates violins in terms of their builders' fame, putting 
Amati's first, Stainer's
second, and Stradivarius' third. ∪∪"Die :altesten Geigen, die sich bis zu uns 
erhalten sind die Brescianer, aus dem sechzehnten Jahrhunderts; sie sind aber etwas
klein.  Nach diesen sind die amatischen, dann die Stainer, und darauf die von
Stradivarius unter den bekannten die beruemtesten." George Simon L:ohlein,
//Anweisung zum Violinspielen/ (Leipzig und Z:ullichau, 1774), p.130: ("The
oldest violins which we have preserved are the Brescian ones from the sixteenth
century; they are, however, a bit small.  After these are the Amatis, then the
Stainers, and after them, those of Stradivarius are the most famous.")∪
Hawkins states in his //History of Music/ that
"The violins of Cremona are exceeded only by those of Stainer, A German, whose
instruments are remarkable for a full and piercing tone." ∪∪Sir John Hawkins, //A
General History of the Science and Practice of Music/ (London: Novello, Ewer & Co.,
1875 [new printing of 1776 ed.]), p.688.∪
//Encyclop'edie M'ethodique/,
a French publication from 1785, also ranks Stainer violins first, followed by those 
of the Amati family and Stradivarius. ∪∪"Les violons qui ont le plus de r'eputation,
sont ceux de //Jacob Steiner/... Les violons de Cr'emone sont aussi tr`es-renomm'es.
Il y en a de deux fortes; savoir, ceux qui ont 'et'e travaill'es par les //Amati/,
et ceux qui sont de la main de //Stradivarius/." from "Art du faiseur d'Instruments
de Musique et Lutherie." extrait de //l''Encyclop'edie Methodique Arts et M'etiers 
M'ecaniques/, Paris, 1785; (Gen`eve: Minkoff Reprint, 1972), p.23: ("The violins 
which have the best reputation are those of //Jacob Stainer/...The violins of 
Cremona are also renown.  There are two [makers] which come to the fore; the 
[violins] to know are those which are
made by the //Amatis/, and those from the hand of //Stradivarius/.")∪
Yet the violins of 
Stradivarius are overwhelmingly preferred today.  One wonders if public opinion has
changed so much.

In his article "Some Speculations on a Crisis in the History of the Violin,"
∪∪Kenneth Skeaping, "Some Speculations on a Crisis in the History of the Violin,"
//Galpin Society Journal/, Vol. VIII,1955. pp. 3-12.∪ Kenneth Skeaping suggests that 
the secret of the present popularity of Stradivarius violins lies in how the 
instruments responded to being
adapted to modern fittings and playing techniques.  He feels that the more resilient,
flatter arching of the Stradivarius combined with the higher string tension
and heavier bass bar used by later virtuosi, to bring out the full power potential
of the instrument, whereas the same alterations made on Amatis and Stainers tended
to overload them.

This highlights another important difference between early and modern violins - 
the bass bar. This is a piece of finely grained wood, cut lengthwise
and glued onto the belly below the left foot of the bridge, running on an
oblique line, somewhat offset from the fourth string.  It serves both an
acoustical and a structural purpose.  Because of its oblique situation,
it crosses the grain of the wood of the belly, and therefore serves as a
transmitter of the vibrations of the bridge across the belly. It also acts as a 
structural reinforcement
against the pressures exerted on the belly by the string tension
and bridge vibration.  A typical bass bar of the early 18th century, according
to Skeaping, would be: length 9π", depth in center ∃", width β".
Modern dimensions (not stabilized until the 19th century) average for the same
three dimensions: 10π" x λ" x ∃". ∪∪Ibid., p.5.∪
The increased size was necessitated by increased pressure
exerted on the body of the instrument by the greater tension of the strings - a
response to demands for violins with greater volume.

Another response to these demands is shown in the alteration of the neck of
the instrument.  Originally, the neck of the violin measured about  4↔"-4≤" 
from under the nut to the edge of the table. ∪∪Ibid., p.5.∪
It was set into the body of the instrument
perpendicularly or slightly tilted, and held securely to the block by glue and nails.
The necessary rise of the strings to the bridge was accomplished by a wedge
placed under the fingerboard.  The fingerboard, according to Boyden, did 
not exceed the 8"-8π" necessary to play in 7th position.  The 
fingerboard 
was 2"-2π" shorter than modern fingerboards. ∪∪David Boyden, //The 
History of Violin
Playing from its Origins to 1761/, (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), p.200.∪
When the need arose for violins which produced a
more powerful sound, builders lengthened the neck to 5⊂"-5⊃", 
eliminated the
wedge, tilted the neck back at a greater angle than before, and raised 
the chamber pitch a half step. This, coupled with the newly developed 
Tourte bow (to be discussed below), had the effect of increasing the tension of the 
strings, the pressure on the bridge and belly, and therefore, the sound of the 
instrument.  To accommodate the increased pressure and the steeper rise of the 
fingerboard, a higher and more substantial bridge was also developed.
.SS|Strings|
Evidence gathered by Arthur Mendel seems to indicate that the most widely used
pitch standard of the 18th century sets "a" approximately a half step lower than the 440
Hz of today.∪∪Alexander Ellis, Arthur Mendel, //Studies in the History of 
Musical Pitch/, (Amsterdam: Frits Knuf, 1968), pp.219-221.∪
This would have been particularly advantageous for the violin, providing less wear
on the gut strings whose lifespans were in any event notoriously short.

Pitch did, however, vary from country to country, and even from city to city.  It seems
that the selection of string thickness depended at least to some extent on the pitch
standard of a particular locale. 
J. F. Reichardt writes,
.begin
.xquote;
"The strings for the instrument must be
chosen according to the pitch of the orchestra.  In an orchestra that tunes to a low
pitch, like the Berlin one, for example, the strings must be much heavier than for
one that tunes to Vienna pitch: the difference is important."
∪∪Translation: Ellis/Mendel, //Studies/, p.215: "Der Bezug des 
Instruments muss sich nach der Stimmung des Orchesters richten.  Bey einem Orchester
was tief steht, wie z.B. das Berlinische, muss der Bezug viel st:arker seyn, als bey
einem andern, das Wiener Stimmung hat: der Unterschied ist wichtig."
J. F. Reichardt, //Ueber die Pflichten des Ripien-Violinisten/, (Berlin &
Leipzig, 1776), p.86∪
.end;
Another factor bearing on
string thickness, according to Leopold Mozart was the size of the
violin.  He states "If the violin be a large model, thicker strings will undoubtedly
have a better effect; whereas if the body be small it will need thin strings."
∪∪Transl. by Knocker, Editha, //A Treatise on the
Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing/ (London: Oxford University Press, 1975):
"Hat die Violin einen grossen K:orper, so werden unfehlbar gr:ossere Seyten von
guter Wirkung seyn: ist der K:orper hingegen klein, so erfordert es eine kleine
Beseytung." Leopold Mozart, //Versuch einer gr:undlichen Violinschule/ (Augsburg:
Johann Jacob Lotter, 1756), p.8∪

He also instructs the student to match a set of strings on the instrument by 
hanging equal weights on them and comparing pitches when struck:
.begin
.xquote;
"Now if the two
strings have been well chosen they should, on being struck, give forth the interval
of a perfect fifth, but if one string sounds too sharp and oversteps the fifth, this
is a sign that it is too weak and a thicker string is then selected; or the string
which sounds flat and is therefore too thick may be exchanged for a thinner string."
∪∪Knocker, //A Treatise/, p.14:
"Sind nun die zwo Seyten recht ausgesucht; so m:ussen sie, bey dem Anschlagen
derselben, das Intervall einer Quint hervorbringen.  Klingt eine gegen die andere zu
hoch, und :uberschreitet die Quint; so ist es ein Zeichen, dass selbige zu schwach
ist, und man nimmt eine st:arkere.  Oder, man ver:andert die zu tief klingende und
leset sich daf:ur eine feinere aus: denn sie ist zu stark." Mozart, //Versuch/, p.6.∪
.end;

A silver wound G string is mentioned in Sebastian Brossard's //Fragments
du Violon/ (c.1712),
∪∪Boyden, //History/, p.321.∪ J.F.B.C. 
Majer (1732),∪∪"Die gr:osste oder st:arkeste Saite/ so zur linken hand ligt/ und 
meistens mit Silber :ubersponnen ist/ wird ins g..." Majer, J.F.B.C., //Museum
Musicum Theoretico Practicum/ (N:urnberg, 1732), p.75: "The thickest, or strongest
string/ near the left hand/ and most of the time spun over with silver/ is at g..."
Quantz (1752),∪∪(Speaking of the bow) "Wird nun derselbe allzunahe 
beym Stege gef:uhret, so wird der Ton zwar schneidend und stark, aber auch zugleich
d:unne, pfeifend, und kratzend: besonders auf der besponnenen Seyte." Quantz, 
Johann Joachim, //Versuch einer Anweisung die Fl:ote traversiere zu spielen/, 
Kritischer revidierter Neudruck nach dem Original Berlin 1752.  Ed. Arnold Schering.
(Leipzig: C.P. Kahnt Nachfolger, 1906) p.152: "If, however, it travels too close
to the bridge, the tone will, to be sure, become cutting and loud, but at the same
time, thin, piping, and scratchy, especially on the spun strings."∪
and L:ohlein, (1774)∪∪"Das G muss fest :ubersponnen seyn, daher ist es gut, wenn 
man die Saite, die man :uberspinnen will, vorher brav ausdehnet; widrigenfalls
dehnet sie sich, nachdem sie :ubersponnen, und der Drat wird los, welches einen
schnarrenden Ton verursachet." L:ohlein, //Anweisung/, p.9: "The G must be firmly
spun. Accordingly, it is good to stretch these strings before winding them, for if
you fail to do this, they will stretch after being spun, and the wire will loosen,
which will give rise to a raspy tone."∪.
Brossard also speaks of a silver
wound D string, and states that the wound strings are thinner than those purely of
gut.  Presumably, this overspinning served to improve the response of strings
when bowed.

.SS|The bow|                    
The type of wood used in a bow is very important to achieve the desired 
characteristics of flexibility, strength, and lightness.
The most popular woods used are snakewood (specklewood),
ironwood, ebony, and pernambuco (also called brazilwood - the preferred material
of Fran,cois Tourte).

 A popular notion, fostered by some early scholars such as F'etis,
is that the bow remained in a rough, primitive state until rescued
by the revolutionary developments of Fran,cois Tourte.  However, as David Boyden
points out, it seems hardly likely  that the violin builders of the
18th century would spend an enormous amount of time with painstaking
attention to detail on the violin, and neglect the bow, the very "soul of the
instrument". ∪∪David Boyden, "Der Geigenbogen von Corelli bis Tourte", //Violinspiel
und Violinmusik in Geschichte und Gegenwart/, (Wien: Universal Edition, 1975), p.295.∪
Unfortunately, the history of the bow is not as well
documented as that of the violin.  Whereas the baroque violin could be adapted to
more modern forms as the times demanded, the structural changes in the bow were
such that it was impossible to convert the old to the new.  Therefore, many of the
early bows were discarded and replaced with newer models; as a result, there
are few surviving examples available for study. Even these are rarely signed 
by their makers, so that dating them is extremely difficult.

Nevertheless, out of the surviving examples, drawings, and contemporary descriptions, 
scholars have been able to piece together a reasonable view of the evolution of
the bow.∪∪See especially Robert Donington's article, "James Talbot's Manuscript," 
//The Galpin Society Journal/, Vol.III, March, 1950; Henry St. George's,
//The Bow/, (London, 1896, 2nd ed., 1909); David Boyden's //History/; and Boyden's
article "Der Geigenbogen von Corelli bis Tourte"∪
The most striking difference between the baroque bow and the modern bow is
the curvature of the stick. In the baroque bow, the curve is convex, or outward
from the hair (fig.3). ∪∪Illustrations are borrowed from David Boyden's //History/,
plates 38 and 29.∪
The hair, which forms a ribbon about ∃" wide, is secured firmly at the pointed tip 
and at the frog.  Early bows had a fixed hair tension, but around the middle of the
17th century, bow makers began to provide means of tightening the hair by
various nut mechanisms.
The screw mechanism familiar to modern players probably came into use
about the end of the 17th century (fig.4).
Mersenne states that the number
of hairs used in the bow was approximately 80-100. ∪∪"L''on appelle ordinairement
ledit bois, //le baston/ ou //le brin/ & la soye //le crin/, parce qu''elle est
compos'ee de 80 ou cent brins de crin de cheval..." Marin Mersenn, //Harmonie
Universelle/, (Paris: chez Sebastien Cramoisy, 1636), p.177-178. ("One ordinarily
calls said wood //the stick/ or //the stalk/ and the hair //the horsehair/ because
it is composed of 80 or 100 fibers of horsehair.")∪

The great fluctuation in the length of surviving bows, shows
that their form was even less standardized than that of the violin.  The 
inconsistency in length is corroborated in paintings and drawings of the
time.  Contemporary descriptions of bows can be somewhat misleading,
especially since it is
not always clear if the writer is describing the total length of the bow or only the
playing area of the hair.

The modern bow is generally 29π" long of which the area of playing hair is 25π".
Measurements calculated from drawings of the times show that baroque bows would
vary from about 19" of playing hair (eg. a picture from J.C. Weigel's 
//Musikalisches Theatrum/, c1720, fig.5) to 28" of playing hair (the engraving in 
Veracini's Op. 2 of 1744, fig.6).  The anonymous "Compleat Musick-Master"
states, "Let your Bow be as long as your instrument," which would be 
around 23".∪∪Robert Donington, "James Talbot's Manuscript," p.41.∪
James Talbot's instrumental inventory of the late 17th century distinguishes between
the length of the ordinary violin bow and that of a bow for soloistic playing,
"Bow of violin not under 24["] from there to 27π at most. 27, 26-25π Solo-Bow."
∪∪Ibid., p.30∪ Robert Donington feels that Talbot is talking about the free
playing hair length of the bow, stating that a bow with the total length of
24" would be much too short for the more sustained compositions.  He also points
to 17th and 18th century paintings depicting bow grips at various points on the
stick, sometimes as much as 2"-3" away from the nut, which would enable the
player to balance a very long bow. ∪∪Ibid., pp.41-42∪
David Boyden takes issue with this view in his //History/.
The most advanced Italian players of the early 18th century
were using bows with about 24"  of playing hair. Roger North writes that virtuoso
Nicola Matteis used a "very long bow" which was "bipedalian" - approximately
two feet. ∪∪Boyden, //History/, p.210.∪
In his commentary on F. Raguenet's comparison of French and Italian
music, John Hawkins observes, "In the year of 1720, a bow of 24 inches was, on
account of its length, called a Sonata bow; the common bow was shorter; and by the
account above given the French bow must have been shorter still." ∪∪Hawkins,
//A General History/, p.782.∪
It seems unlikely, therefore, that the English violinists, who were much
less advanced technically than the Italians, would be using even longer bows than 
those required for 
soloistic playing.  The English violin music of the time followed the style
of the French in the popularity of simple dances.  Not only would a long bow have
been unnecessary for playing these pieces, but it might even have hampered the 
playing style of the musicians through the awkwardness of its length.

The bow was standardized by Fran,cois Tourte around 1785.
His main contribution was to incorporate all the developments of the bow
up to that point.  These developments were essentially made in response to the
need for virtuosi to produce a more powerful, sustained sound, and a greater dynamic
range.  They took the form of longer playing hair, wider ribbon of hair 
(around λ" with approximately 150-200 hairs - still fewer than modern bows)∪∪
Edward Heron-Allen, //Violin-Making as it Was and Is/, (Boston: Elias Howe Co.,
1914), p.96-97.∪, and
an increase in the tension of the bow by making the curvature of the stick 
concave rather than convex. Tourte kept the ribbon of hair flat by pinching it
at the nut with a ferrule.  The cambre (inward curve) of the bow necessitated a 
different sort of head to keep the hair away from the stick.  The old "swan bills"
(as Boyden calls the pointed tips of Corelli-Tartini style bows) were replaced with
the hatchet heads familiar to modern violinists (fig.7).

.SS|Summary|
To summarize, the violin of the early 18th century when compared with the modern
instrument, would have had a shorter, 
thicker neck (thicker as a result of being nailed to the body rather than 
mortised as today); the fingerboard was wedge-shaped, and about 2π" shorter;
the slope of the strings to the bridge, accomplished by means of the
fingerboard rather than a tilted neck, was less steep, 
and the bridge thinner, lower, and flatter.
Also, the strings were all gut, with the lowest two possibly wound
with silver, and they were tuned about a half step lower than modern pitch.

The bow had a convex or straight stick, with a pointed tip. The length,
it seems clear, depended on the type of music being played: the shorter 
bows with 20"-21" playing hair would have sufficed for the simple French-style 
dances, and the longer 24" bows were needed for the soloistic literature.
Fewer hairs were used in the bow, making the ribbon about β"
thinner than modern bows.

The resulting sound of the 18th century violin was therefore much less brilliant 
than the
modern violin because of the lower tension of the strings, a lower force exerted
by the lighter bow, and the lower pitch of the instrument.  The bow
had a springier action, conducive to a more detach'e style of playing
with fewer dynamic variations.